Hydrolyzed Wheat Starch is a hydrolysate of wheat starch derived by acid, enzyme or other method of hydrolysis. Naturally derived, hydrolyzed wheat starch contains wheat oligosaccharides and constitutes a unique hydrating complex offering a combination of moisture-balancing and film-forming properties that work synergistically to give hair better body control, and skin, a smoother softer feel. There are no adverse effects reported or expected from this well-established hair and skin softener.

Source: Dweck, Anthony. Handbook of Cosmetic Ingredients: - their use, safety and toxicology (Dweck Books 5)

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Zinc oxide (C1 77947). The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) lists Zinc Oxide as a color additive exempt from certification. Zinc Oxide is safe for use in coloring products, including cosmetics and personal care products applied to the lips, and the area of the eye, provided it meets certain specifications. Zinc Oxide is also an approved colorant for drugs, and it is approved as an indirect food additive for use as a colorant of some polymers in contact with food. The FDA has also approved the use of Zinc Oxide for use in OTC skin protectants and ano-rectal skin protectant drug products at concentrations up to 25%, and in sunscreen drug products at concentrations up to 25%. FDA also includes Zinc Oxide on its list of substances considered Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) as a nutrient. The Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) has deferred evaluation of this ingredient because the safety has been assessed by FDA. This deferral of review is according to the provisions of the CIR Procedures. The SCCS concludes that ZnO nanomaterials with the following characteristics can be considered similar to the ZnO nanomaterials as evaluated in opinion SCCS/1489/12 and thus pose no or limited risk for use on the skin as UV filter in sunscreen formulations: 1. ZnO nanoparticles of purity ≥96%, with wurtzite crystalline structure and physical appearance as clusters that are rod-like, star-like and/or isometric shapes, with impurities consisting only of carbon dioxide and water, whilst any other impurities are less than 1% in total. 2. ZnO nanoparticles with a median diameter (D50: 50% of the number below this diameter) of the particle number size distribution above 30 nm, and the D1 (1% below this size) above 20nm. 3. ZnO nanoparticles that are either uncoated or coated with triethoxycaprylylsilane, dimethicone, dimethoxydiphenylsilanetriethoxycaprylylsilane cross-polymer, or octyl triethoxy silane. Other cosmetic ingredients can be used as coatings as long as they are demonstrated to the SCCS to be safe and do not affect the particle properties related to behaviour and/or effects, compared to the nanomaterials covered in the current opinion.

Source: Dweck, Anthony. Handbook of Cosmetic Ingredients: - their use, safety and toxicology (Dweck Books 5)

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Behenyl Alcohol is a white, waxy solids. Isostearyl Alcohol is a clear liquid. Fatty alcohols are widely used in cosmetics and personal care products, especially in skin lotions and creams. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) includes synthetic fatty alcohols including Cetyl Alcohol, Stearyl Alcohol and Myristyl Alcohol on its list of food additives permitted for direct addition to food as multipurpose food additives. Synthetic fatty alcohols are also permited as indirect food additives as adjuvants and production aids. The safety of Cetearyl Alcohol, Cetyl Alcohol, Isostearyl Alcohol, Myristyl Alcohol and Behenyl Alcohol has been assessed by the Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) Expert Panel. The CIR Expert Panel evaluated the scientific data and concluded that these fatty alcohols were safe for use as cosmetic ingredients. In 2005, the CIR Expert Panel considered available new data on Cetearyl Alcohol and the other fatty alcohols and reaffirmed the above conclusion.

Source: Dweck, Anthony. Handbook of Cosmetic Ingredients: - their use, safety and toxicology (Dweck Books 5)

Creatine. Glycine, N-(Aminoiminomethyl)-N-Methyl-.  Creatine is naturally produced in the human body from amino acids primarily in the kidney and liver. It is transported in the blood for use by muscles. Approximately 95% of the human body's total creatine is located in skeletal muscle. Beiersdorf scientists show creatine benefits in anti-ageing and skin care products. A group of scientists from Beiersdorf Research and Development have completed research that states that the nitrogenous organic acid creatine could represent a beneficial active ingredient for topical use in the prevention and treatment of human skin ageing. Cutaneous aging is characterized by a decline in cellular energy metabolism, which is mainly caused by detrimental changes in mitochondrial function. The processes involved seem to be predominantly mediated by free radicals known to be generated by exogenous noxes, e.g., solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Basically, skin cells try to compensate any loss of mitochondrial energetic capacity by extra-mitochondrial pathways such as glycolysis or the creatine kinase (CK) system. Recent studies reported the presence of cytosolic and mitochondrial isoenzymes of CK, as well as a creatine transporter in human skin. In this study, we analyzed the cutaneous CK system, focusing on those cellular stressors known to play an important role in the process of skin aging. According to results, a stress-induced decline in mitochondrial energy supply in human epidermal cells correlated with a decrease in mitochondrial CK activity. In addition, the effects of creatine supplementation on human epidermal cells as a potential mechanism to reinforce the endogenous energy supply in skin. Exogenous creatine was taken up by keratinocytes and increased CK activity, mitochondrial function and protected against free oxygen radical stress. New data clearly indicate that human skin cells that are energetically recharged with the naturally occurring energy precursor, creatine, are markedly protected against a variety of cellular stress conditions, like oxidative and UV damage in vitro and in vivo. This may have further implications in modulating processes, which are involved in premature skin aging and skin damage.

Source: Dweck, Anthony. Handbook of Cosmetic Ingredients: - their use, safety and toxicology (Dweck Books 5)

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Undaria Pinnatifida Extract is an extract of the Alga, Undaria pinnatifida, Alariaceae. Undaria pinnatifida. Sea Mustard, Wakame, Japanese Kelp. The algae has resistance against harsh environmental stress (UV light, water movements and abrasions) that is related to its content of a special sulphated polysaccharide called fucoidan that protects the algae’s body wall from losing integrity and stability. It contains proteins, lipids, micronutrients, vitamins and sugar that lead to a revitalizing and energizing action on skin cells. It has been reported that fucoidan has radical scavenging and hyaluronidase inhibitory properties. It is these properties that make Wakame a useful antiaging active ingredient in cosmetics. Supplier: Crodarom produces a glycerin/aqueous extract of U. pinnatifida (Phytessence Wakame) and has shown that the protection of hyaluronic acid degradation by inhibition of hyaluronidase enzyme activity prevents deterioration of skin tissues, decrease of dermal thickness and improved firmness.

Source: Dweck, Anthony. Handbook of Cosmetic Ingredients: - their use, safety and toxicology (Dweck Books 5)

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Pyrus Malus Seed Oil is the oil expressed from the seeds of thee Apple, Pyrus malus L., Rosaceae. Traditional use: They are a good first aid. Use them raw as a poultice, or bake them and extract the pulp. Use this pulp on the eyes to relieve any kind of strain or inflammation. Over-ripe apples are used in some parts of England to relieve rheumatic and weak eyes. Apple can be used as a poultice for strains. Apple cider vinegar is an excellent cosmetic aid and can be mixed with rosewater for a daily restorative face splash. Pyrus malus is the scientific name for the apple. Apple-derived ingredients (Pyrus Malus (Apple) Fiber, Pyrus Malus (Apple) Flower Extract, Pyrus Malus (Apple) Fruit, Pyrus Malus (Apple) Fruit Extract, Pyrus Malus (Apple) Fruit Water, Pyrus Malus (Apple) Fruit Juice, Pyrus Malus (Apple) Leaf Extract, Pyrus Malus (Apple) Oil, Pyrus Malus (Apple) Pectin Extract, Pyrus Malus (Apple) Peel Extract, Pyrus Malus (Apple) Peel Powder, Pyrus Malus (Apple) Peel Wax, Pyrus Malus (Apple) Root Extract, Pyrus Malus (Apple) Seed Extract, Pyrus Malus (Apple) Seed Oil, Pyrus Malus (Apple) Stem Extract) are obtained from the fruit, leaf, stem, root or flower of the plant Pyrus malus. In cosmetics and personal care products, the ingredients derived from Pyrus malus are used in the formulation of a wide variety of products including hair conditioners, hand and body lotions, and shampoos. Apples, the fruit of the plant from which these ingredients are derived, are listed by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) among the 20 most commonly consumed fruits. The FDA includes pectin, including pectin derived from apples, on its list of substances considered Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) as direct food substances. Botanical and botanically derived ingredients used in the formulation of cosmetics are generally mild and safe. Prior to marketing the finished cosmetic product, the safety of each ingredient must be substantiated in accordance with 21 CFR 740.10. Safety substantiation of cosmetic ingredients may include tests for ocular and skin irritation as well as allergenicity, phototoxicity, photoallergenicity and mutagenicity, depending on the application or intended use. There is a considerable body of information about the safety of botanical ingredients and a well-established history of use. These resources are consulted to ensure the safety of these materials as they are used in cosmetics.Apple seed oil is extracted from the seed Kernels of apple, by the cold press and filteration process. It is most stable natural oil and it is found to be good source of oleic acid and linoleic acid. Cold pressed oil are extracted without the use of any kind of solvents. Apple seeds oil is rich in essential fatty acids, (between 85 to 88%) & amino acids compostion of lipids & protein components. Typically apple seed oil contains high levels of linoleic acid (60%) with the other dominant fatty acids being oleic (27.50), palmitic (7.40) and stearic acids,(2%).

Source: Dweck, Anthony. Handbook of Cosmetic Ingredients: - their use, safety and toxicology (Dweck Books 5)

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Lactobacillus Ferment is the product obtained from the fermentation of Lactobacillus Lactobacillus fermentum is a Gram-positive species of bacterium in the genus Lactobacillus. It is associated with active dental caries lesions. It is also commonly found in fermenting animal and plant material. It has been found in sourdough. A few strains are considered probiotic or "friendly" bacteria in animals and at least one strain has been applied to treat urogenital infections in women. A patent was issued that claimed The present invention concerns methods and compositions for prophylactic or therapeutic treatment of skin disorders by administering therapeutically or prophylactically effective amounts of a probiotic and is also concerned with the treatment of symptoms of skin disorders. Lactobacillus is used for skin disorders such as fever blisters, canker sores, eczema (allergic dermatitis); and acne. It is also used for high cholesterol, lactose intolerance, Lyme disease, hives, and to boost the immune system. Women sometimes use lactobacillus suppositories to treat vaginal infections and urinary tract infections (UTIs). In light of the evidence there are few concerns for the topical application of this material.

Source: Dweck, Anthony. Handbook of Cosmetic Ingredients: - their use, safety and toxicology (Dweck Books 5)

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Propanediol is a skin-friendly, natural and petroleum-free glycol alternative for the cosmetics and personal care market. It is available as an approved by Ecocert™ and certified by the Natural Products Association (NPA), Zemea® is a 100% natural ingredient.It is the perfect glycol alternative for formulations where non-petroleum based ingredients are desired. Benefits include its high purity, lack of skin irritation or sensitization, improved humectancy, excellent aesthetics and environmentally sustainable nature. It is currently being used in many major hair and skin care brands around the world. Zemea® propanediol can be used to replace glycols such as propylene glycol (1,2-propanediol), butylene glycol (1,3-/1,4-butanediol) or glycerin. Depending on your formulation needs, it can function as: Emollient, Humectant, Solvent, Hand-feel Modifier, Viscosity Enhancer, Botanical Extraction and Dilution, as a carrier for active ingredients, Ingredient for natural esters and ethers, Ingredient in natural preservative systems.  

Source: Dweck, Anthony. Handbook of Cosmetic Ingredients: - their use, safety and toxicology (Dweck Books 5)

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The term rheology describes the flow characteristics of liquids and the deformation of solids. Viscosity is an expression of the resistance of a fluid to flow. Rheological properties are crucial for liquid and semiliquid cosmetic formulations because they determine the product’s properties meaningful in mixing and flow when produced, filled into containers and removed before use, as well as sensory properties when applied, such as consistency, spreadability, and smoothness.

Furthermore, the rheology of a product may also affect the physical stability and the biological availability of the product. Regarding rheological characteristics, there are two main types of systems: Newtonian and non-Newtonian.

The former show constant viscosity when stressed, i.e., the rate of shear (flow velocity) is directly proportional to the shearing stress, e.g., water, mineral oil, etc. In non-Newtonian systems (most cosmetic products), however, viscosity changes with varying stress, i.e., viscosity depends on the degree of shearing stress, resulting either in plastic, pseudoplastic, or dilatant flow or in thixothropy, characteristics that are not discussed in depth here although they are of practical significance. An ideal topical product, e.g., shows optimal thixotropic properties; it does not flow out of a tube’s orifice unless slightly pressed, and when on the skin it does not immediately flow and drop off unless easily spread over the application area, where under a certain stress it becomes more fluid because of the thixotropy. The rheological properties of semisolid products are determined first for general characterization in the development phase and second for quality-control reasons after manufacturing. There are various instrumental methods used to measure rheology or viscosity. Today, apparatus based on rotation or oscillation are commonly used for non-Newtonian systems.

In order to adjust the rheology of products, various means and excipients are available. If the viscosity has to be increased, addition of viscosity increasing agents is needed. Addition or increase in concentration of electrolytes may influence viscosity. Many systems, e.g., polyacrylates, are sensitive to the presence of ions and the viscosity is reduced. In particular, emulsions are susceptible to rheological issues. Various factors determine the rheological properties of emulsions, such as viscosity of internal and external phases, phase volume ratio, particle size distribution, type and concentration of emulsifying system, and viscosity-modifying agents.

It is important to realize that small changes in concentrations or ratio of certain ingredients may result in drastic changes of the rheological characteristics. Emulsified products may undergo a wide variety of shear stresses during either preparation or use. Thus, an emulsion formulation should be robust enough to resist external factors that could modify its rheological properties or the product should be designed so that change in rheology results in a desired effect.

Source: Handbook of Cosmetic Science and Technology - André O. Barel, Marc Paye, Howard I. Maibach

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A stick is a solid delivery vehicle cast in an elongated form. By rubbing a stick onto skin, a variety of cosmetic ingredients can be delivered, such as fragrances, coloring agents, and emollients. In particular, sticks are ideally suited to deliver insoluble substances, e.g., pigments.

The most popular cosmetic sticks are lipsticks and antiperspirant/deodorant sticks.

There are mainly three basic vehicle types of sticks:

1. Mixture of waxes (e.g., beeswax, carnauba) and oils (e.g., mineral, castor oil) that are cast into solid form, containing dissolved or undissolved active ingredients
2. Hydrophilic or aqueous sticks: solutions based on aqueous, propylene glycol, alcohol mixtures, solidified usually by sodium stearate, containing, e.g., aluminium chlorohydrate as antiperspirant
3. Matrix consisting of a high-boiling volatile silicone (e.g., cyclomethicone) gelled by fatty alcohol (e.g., stearyl alcohol)

In recent years, clear sticks have become popular. As a gelling agent, dibenzylidene sorbitol is used in propylene glycol or other related polyols.

Source: Handbook of Cosmetic Science and Technology - André O. Barel, Marc Paye, Howard I. Maibach

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Suspensions are not just vehicles but products consisting of particles, generally actives or functional excipients, that are dispersed in a liquid or semisolid medium that functions as a vehicle. Nevertheless, a suspension is also a type of formulation that may be used for application on the skin and to deliver substances to a target. In this way, a suspension can be regarded as a vehicle entity affecting the application site. Examples are sun-protection products or pearlescent nail lacquers containing pigments.

In suspension, sedimentation of unsoluble particles may happen because of difference in density. In order to guarantee a homogeneous product when applied, the particles must be redispersible by shaking before use. Alternatively, sedimentation must be hindered or at least reduced during storage. This is achieved by reduction of particle size and/or by increasing the viscosity of the vehicle, ideally creating a thixotropic system. The vehicle effect of the suspension on the skin is primarily caused by the liquid or semisolid phase of the vehicle comparable to solutions and emulsions.

Source: Handbook of Cosmetic Science and Technology - André O. Barel, Marc Paye, Howard I. Maibach

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Microemulsion is defined as a system of water, oil, and amphiphile, which is a single optically isotropic and thermodynamically stable liquid solution. ‘‘This definition should be widened, however, to include metastable states, spontaneous emulsions of long-lived kinetic stability.’’ The term microemulsion may be a misnomer, because microemulsions consist of large or ‘‘swollen’’ micelles containing the internal phase, much like that found in a solubilized solution.

Microemulsions contain oil droplets in a water phase or water droplets in oil with diameters of about 10 to 200 nm. Therefore they appear as isotropic, optically clear liquid or gel-like systems. Unlike micellar solubilized systems, microemulsions may not be thermodynamically stable; nevertheless, they are more stable than ordinary emulsions. They are a type of ternary system composed from water, lipid, and surfactant mixture in a distinct ratio

Microemulsions may be used to incorporate or dissolve active substances and have been found to improve skin penetration and permeation.
The disadvantage of microemulsions is their rather high concentration of surfactants, which is a risk for increased skin irritation and sensitization. Nevertheless, modern microemulsion formulation is based on alkyl polyglycosides which are regarded to be milder than conventional nonionic surfactants with polyoxyethylene chains.

Hydrogels are hydrophilic, consisting mainly (85–95%) of water or an aqueous-alcoholic mixture and the gelling agent.

Source: Handbook of Cosmetic Science and Technology - André O. Barel, Marc Paye, Howard I. Maibach

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Hydrogels are hydrophilic, consisting mainly (85–95%) of water or an aqueous-alcoholic mixture and the gelling agent. The latter is usually an organic polymeric compound such as polyacrylic acid (Carbopol), sodium carboxy methylcellulose, or nonionic cellulose-ethers. Hydrogels have to be preserved against microbial growth.
After application, hydrogels show a cooling effect caused by evaporation of the solvent. They are easily applicable and humidify instantaneously, but if applied over a long time they desiccate the skin. For that reason, humectants such as glycerol may be added. After evaporation, the polymer residue may cause a sticky or ‘‘tearing’’ feel on the skin if inappropriate thickening agents have been used. Careful selection and testing of the needed adjuvants is therefore recommended.

Source: Handbook of Cosmetic Science and Technology - André O. Barel, Marc Paye, Howard I. Maibach

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Gels are dispersed systems, originally liquids (solutions) that have a certain consistency useful and practical for topical application. In contrast to emulsions, gels generally do not comprise two immiscible phases of opposite lyophilicity. Therefore, the polarity and solubility characteristics of the incorporated substances are either hydrophilic—in hydrogels—or lipophilic—in lipogels (or oleogels). The consistency of gels is caused by gelling (thickening) agents, usually polymers, building a three dimensional network. Intermolecular forces bind the solvent molecules to the polymeric network, and thus the reduced mobility of these molecules results in a structured system with increased viscosity.

Pure gels are transparent and clear or at least opalescent. Transparency is only achieved if all ingredients are dissolved or occur at least in colloidal form, i.e., the size of particles is in the submicron range. Transparency in particular is an attractive property of gels. Gel products have positive aesthetic characteristics and are thus becoming more and more popular in cosmetic care products today. Gels can also serve as the basis for more complex formulations:

• Solid particles can be incorporated, resulting in stabilized suspensions
• Incorporation of oily lipids results in so-called hydrolipid dispersions or quasiemulsions

Source: Handbook of Cosmetic Science and Technology - André O. Barel, Marc Paye, Howard I. Maibach

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Melasma manifests as increased pigmentation in the face, typically symmetric patches or macules are found on either side, with a tendency to occur on the sunexposed
areas of the face (cheeks, upper lips). This disorder is much more common in women than men (a ratio of 9:1) and in persons with high-grade phototype.
Major etiologic factors include genetic influences, female sex hormones, and exposure to UV radiation. Histopathology findings indicate hyperpigmentation in all epidermal layers caused by an increase in melanin and also the number of active melanocytes. A flattening of the epidermal rete ridges has been reported, suggesting that keratinocytic proliferation may not be involved in melasma. Pathogenesis is poorly understood. A recent study indicated that the high expression of α-MSH in keratinocytes of the melasmic lesions was a major factor. Treatment options are prevention using good broad-spectrum sunscreen, retinoids, α-hydroxy acids, and hydroquinone.

Source: Dermatologic, Cosmeceutic and Cosmetic development - Kenneth A. Walters, Michael S. Roberts

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In the development of cosmetic products, it is crucial to introduce the laboratory sample into production settings to ensure its safe and consistent manufacturing. This process involves the scale-up phase, where progressively larger batch sizes are employed during pilot productions. This ensures that the final product replicates the characteristics of the sample created during product development.

Scaling up can be done by increasing the size tenfold or up to twenty times. For instance, if a 100-gram sample is produced, the next step would be a one-kilogram sample, followed by a 10-20 kg batch, and finally, the final production size.

Pilot productions are also necessary to mitigate risks. If a sample fails to yield the same results as the previous one, production can be repeated to ensure consistent quality. This risk reduction is achieved by identifying and rectifying issues early on in the process.

During the scale-up process, the physical parameters and stability of the sample must be thoroughly examined.

Scaling up is most efficient when different sized equipment utilizes the same technology.

Measurement uncertainty can also introduce variability into the final product. With small batches, even highly precise scales can yield significant deviations. This variability can be eliminated through the scale-up process.

Upon completion of the scale-up process, the final batch size, production documentation, and physical parameters are established. This allows for the product's introduction into mass production and the evaluation of manufacturing quality.

Additional Points:

The scale-up process should be documented in detail to ensure consistency and reproducibility.
Analytical testing should be conducted throughout the scale-up process to monitor product quality.
Any deviations from the expected results should be investigated and resolved promptly.
A well-defined scale-up process is essential for ensuring the successful transition of cosmetic products from lab to market.

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The world turned its attention to fenugreek (T foenum graecum) for its source of diosgenin.
Fenugreek or foenugreek seeds are emollient and accelerate the healing of suppurations and inflammations.
Externally cooked with water into a porridge and used as hot compresses on boils and abscesses in a similar manner to the use of linseed.
Decoctions of whole plant are used as a bath for uterus infections. The seeds are tonic, restorative, aphrodisiac, and galactagogue. Their emollient properties are useful for the itch. A cataplasm obtained by boiling the flour of the seeds with vinegar and saltpeter is used for swelling of the spleen.
Extracts of the seeds are incorporated into several cosmetics claimed to have effect on premature hair loss, and as a skin cleanser, and it is also reported in Java in hair tonics and to cure baldness. Many of the herbal materials found to have
an effect on hair growth have a hormonal or hormonalmimetic basis.

Likewise, there are a number of references to fenugreek having galactagogue (increase milk in nursing mothers) activity, which again is indicative of an estrogen-like
activity. The plant should be used with caution as fenugreek is reputed to be oxytocic and in vitro uterine stimulant activity has been documented, so the use of fenugreek during pregnancy and lactation in doses greatly exceeding those normally encountered in foods is not advisable.

Source: The internal and external use of medicinal plants - Anthony C. Dweck, FLS, FRSC, FRSH

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It is a curious fact, but there are no legal definitions of natural and this provides much subject for debate and litigation as law enforcement agencies argue interpretation with marketers of products placed onto the market.
We would define natural as any material that is harvested, mined, or collected, and which may have subsequently been washed, decolorized, distilled, fractionated, ground, milled, separated, or concentrated to leave a chemical or chemicals that would be available and detectable in the original source material. It is also the modification of natural material by the action of microorganisms, enzymes, or yeasts to modify or increase the yield of material by this process.
Naturally derived materials are defined by the use of a natural raw material as the starting point in a chemical process to produce a newchemical or chemicals that in themselves may not be available in nature or in the starting material.
Nature identical material is a substance that has been produced synthetically, not usually from a natural starting material, to produce a material that is identical to that naturally occurring in nature.

The concept of 'natural' is complex and lacks a universal definition. However, an ISO standard for natural ingredients has been established.

ISO 16128-2:2017 describes approaches to calculate natural, natural origin, organic and organic origin indexes that apply to the ingredient categories defined in ISO 16128‑1. This document also offers a framework to determine the natural, natural origin, organic and organic origin content of products based on the ingredient characterization.

ISO 16128 provides guidelines on definitions and criteria for natural and organic cosmetic ingredients and products. These guidelines are specific to the cosmetics sector, taking into account that most existing approaches written for the agricultural and food sector are not directly transferrable to cosmetics. They apply scientific judgment and offer principles towards a consistent logical framework for natural and organic cosmetic ingredients and products incorporating common approaches employed in existing references. The purpose of these guidelines is to encourage a wider choice of natural and organic ingredients in the formulation of a diverse variety of cosmetic products to encourage innovation.

Source: The internal and external use of medicinal plants - Anthony C. Dweck, FLS, FRSC, FRSH and iso.org

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Microneedles are a promising and minimally invasive transdermal delivery technique effective in promoting peptide permeation through the skin.

The needles have a size ranging from 100 to 1500 μm, which makes them able to pass through the stratum corneum (thickness between 10 and 30 μm).

Furthermore, they are responsible of forming pores in the skin, which are large enough to allow macromolecules to pass through, simply and painlessly.

Despite the advantages of this notable approach, microneedles have an obstacle when it comes to the delivery of substances: the elasticity of the skin. This parameter may hinder the penetration of microneedles in the stratum corneum, since the skin, can deform with the pressure exerted by the needle, without breaking its barrier. Consequently, pore formation and substance permeation are compromised.

There are some studies suggesting that different microneedles allow successful permeation of peptides into the skin. An in vitro study was performed by Zhang et al., to investigate the efficacy of solid microneedle arrays (consisting of 121 needles, attached to an applicator) in delivering hydrophilic peptides, namely acetyl hexapeptide-3, into pig ear skin. The results of the study exhibited not only that this physical system was effective in forming pores, but also in the delivery of the peptides through the skin, since the passive flow of acetyl hexapeptide 3 through the skin, when microneedles were applied was 0.44 ± 0.12 μmoL/cm/h, which was much higher than the passive flow of this peptide in untreated skin (0.014 ± 0.002 μmoL/cm/h).

Source: Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology - Anti-aging peptides for advanced skincare: Focus on nanodelivery systems

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Skin aging is largely due to the accumulation of oxidative damage, resulting from the insufficient bioavailability of antioxidants regarding the increased amount of ROS produced, by the mitochondrial aerobic metabolism or solar UV radiation.

Consequently, ROS accumulate and activate several signaling pathways, responsible for the reduction of collagen synthesis; production and activation of MMP and release of the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP).

Studies with Tel-E6E7 human stem cells suggested that ROS induced by UV radiation, promote MMP-1 activity in keratinocytes and fibroblasts of the dermis.

Thereby, to prevent oxidative stress, antioxidant peptides are used owing to their ability to transfer an electron or hydrogen atom to stabilize radicals, or to their capability to complex ions, such as copper, essential for the functioning of enzymes involved in the inflammation and aging process, inhibiting them. Moreover, antioxidant activity is still dependent on their molecular weight, as low molecular weight peptides have a greater ability to donate hydrogen or electrons; their hydrophobicity that improve the accessibility to hydrophobic cellular targets, e.g. biological membranes; and their amino acid sequence.

Hydrolyzed collagen or collagen peptides results from the denaturation of collagen protein by enzymatic hydrolysis. In the cosmetic industry, hydrolyzed collagen is widely used, owing to their biocompatibility, easy biodegradability, and very low toxicity when topically applied. Hydrolyzed collagen has been identified as a good moisturizer for the stratum corneum of the epidermis, though, as far as its anti-aging benefits, its mechanism of action is not fully identified.

The antioxidant activity of peptides is related to its molecular weight, thus smaller peptides up to 10 KDa (equivalent to 2 to 10 amino
acids) show higher antioxidant activity. To assess the relationship between the molecular weight of collagen hydrolysates from sheep skin (which is dependent on the time of hydrolysis of the collagen) and its antioxidant activity, L´eon-Lopez et al. conducted a study in which two free radicals were used: ABTS (suitable to evaluate hydrophilic and hydrophobic antioxidants) and DPPH. The results of the study showed that the highest radical scavenging activity was seen after 4 h of hydrolysis of the collagen protein, 67.6 % for ABTS and 52.75 % for DPPH. Thus, collagen hydrolysates of small size and composition in antioxidant amino acids e.g., glutamic acid (due to the high hydrolysis time), guarantee a considerable antioxidant activity, and may be valid options in combating skin aging caused by oxidative stress.

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Copper tripeptide-1 (Cu-GHK) was the first peptide used in cosmetics for skin application, and resemble the alpha chain of collagen.
This carrier peptide is very versatile concerning several skin functions, including stimulation of collagen, glycosaminoglycans, elastin and proteoglycans synthesis by fibroblasts, as well as anti-inflammatory response. Cu-GHK comprises numerous cosmetic applications, being used in products for its efficacy in reducing wrinkles, hyperpigmentation and photo damage, in stimulating keratinocyte proliferation and improving the skin barrier.
A study conducted by Huang et al., demonstrated that Cu-GHK when used with therapeutic light-emitting diode (light therapy to prevent aging and aid the healing process) led to an increase in pro collagen type I synthesis (about 230.0 %), as well as in basic fibroblast growth factor production (about 30.0 %). Therefore, it is concluded that Cu-GHK may be an ally in combating skin aging, since it promotes fibroblast growth and collagen synthesis, as well as epidermal repair.

Source: Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology - Anti-aging peptides for advanced skincare: Focus on nanodelivery systems

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Palmitoyl tripeptide-1 is a signal peptide that results of the conjugation of palmitic acid with tripeptide-1 which performs two functions: signal peptide and carrier peptide when complexed with copper. Palmitoyl tripeptide-1 act on the TGF-β, which is responsible for stimulating dermal fibroblasts to produce ECM proteins, which will reinforce the epidermis, but also reduce wrinkles.

Source: Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology - Anti-aging peptides for advanced skincare: Focus on nanodelivery systems

Anti-aging peptides are applied to the skin to obtain a local effect, acting on the factors that cause changes in the structure, appearance, functionality, and homeostasis of the skin. According to their mechanism of action, anti-aging peptides can be categorized as bioactive peptides, which act on the skin repair and renewal systems, stimulate collagen synthesis, cell proliferation, and reduce melanogenesis; antioxidant peptides, capable of eliminating ROS from the body and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) that are involved in the maintenance of a healthy skin microbiome.
Despite its beneficial effects, these peptides are hydrophilic substances, thus may have difficulty crossing the epidermal barrier, so conjugation with fatty acids, such as palmitic acid, is frequently used to increase protection of the peptides against enzymatic action, and their lipophilic character improve delivery through the skin.
Anti-aging peptides are therefore appealing ingredients for the cosmetic industry because of their wide applicability and also owing to their higher safety profile.

Source: Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology - Anti-aging peptides for advanced skincare: Focus on nanodelivery systems

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Traditional use: A warming oil, it asist improvement of circulation, digestion, mental clarity and alertness. It is used to relieves muscle aches and pains and is said to assist in increasing physical endurance and energy. It may assist in reducing cellulite. In China, it is used additionally to treat itchy skin conditions. It is an ingredient of ointments and bath preparations used to alleviate rheumatism. May be used externally in baths, inhalants or poultices where an antiseptic action is required, externally as a lotion for varicose veins.

Source: Handbook Of Natural Ingredients - Anthony C. Dweck

Adansonia Digitata Seed Oil is the oil expressed from the seeds of the Monkey Bread Tree or the Baobab, Adansonia Digitata L., Bombacaceae. Baobab oil (Mbuyu in Swahili) is derived from the seeds of the baobab tree, a tree that is native to Eastern and Southern Africa. Baobab oil has been part of African skin care for centuries. This rich, golden oil has a sligtly nutty smell. It has a high content of vitamins A, D, E and F (essential fatty acids). Baobab oil is said to provide impressive moisturizing benefits to the skin and hair. It absorbs quickly, improves elasticity, encourages regeneration of skin cells and does not clog the pores.

Saponification value: 205.
Iodine value: 80.
Average carbon number: 17.379.

Traditional use: An African tree steeped in mystery, legend and religious significance. The fruit provides an exquisite oil that is a rich and substantive moisturizer. The traditional method of oil extraction is by pounding the seeds. The oil thus produced is used as a rub to relieve aches, pains and rheumatism, but more especially, to treat skin complaints such as eczema and psoriasis. Baobab oil is extremely stable against rancidity. No adverse effects are reported or expected from the topical application to the skin.

(CAS: 91745-12-9; EINECS: 294-680-8)

Function: Emollient / hair conditioning / skin conditioning.

The actual or estimated LD₅₀ value: 5,000 mg/kg body weight. AICS status (NICNAS Australia): Number and description not found.

Source: Handbook Of Natural Ingredients - Anthony C. Dweck

Peppermint. Country: South Africa/Malawi. Part used: fresh leaves. Traditional use: Typical minty fragrance with mentholic undertones. It has a clean, clearing, penetrating odor. Invigorating; ideal travel companion, calms the stomach. Used to bathe tired and sweaty feet. A good insect repellent. Has a cooling effect on the body. Stimulating, used for headaches and nausea, very cooling. Breath freshener.

Source: Handbook Of Natural Ingredients - Anthony C. Dweck

Resveratrol  is a phytoalexin (trans-3,5,4’-trihydroxystilbene), an antioxidant polyphenol from red wine and recent evidence has supported the assumption that is largely responsible for red wine’s protective effects on blood vessels, by inhibiting lipid peroxidation of low density lipoprotein (LDL). It is found in the skin of red grapes, and is synthesized by the plant in response to attack by pathogens such as bacteria or fungi (especially by the Botrytis fungus). It has been the subject of intense interest in recent years due to a range of unique antiaging properties. The role of resveratrol in prevention of photoaging was reviewed and compared with other antioxidants used in skin care products. It has been clinically proven to have a two-step anti wrinkle activity and also has antiaging activity based on Sirtuin-1 activation.

Source: Handbook Of Natural Ingredients - Anthony C. Dweck

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Retinol is the primary naturally occurring form of vitamin A. It is a pale yellow crystalline material or a thick liquid. Retinyl Palmitate is a yellow to yellow-red solid or oily substance. Retinyl Palmitate is the ester of Retinol and palmitic acid. In cosmetics and personal care products, Retinol and Retinyl Palmitate are used primarily in the formulation of hair, facial make-up and skin care products. Internally it counteracts night blindness, weak eyesight and in the treatment of many eye disorders. It permits the formation of visual purple in the eye. Helps in the removal of age spots.Promotes healthy skin, hair, teeth and gums. Helps treat acne, impetigo, boils.

Source: Handbook Of Natural Ingredients - Anthony C. Dweck