Waxes are a mixture of hydrophobic organic substances of medium-chain length. Waxes will melt at temperatures in the range of 40°C up to 140°C without decomposition and will re-solidify unchanged. Solubility and consistency of waxes is strongly temperature-dependent. Waxes are classified into animal, vegetable and mineral types depending on their source.

Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters

Unique Selling Point or Unique Selling Proposition is a marketing term that describes the one thing that makes your product or service different from the competition. It is what makes your product or service special and worth buying.

A good USP should be:

Clear and concise
Believable
Persuasive
Relevant to the target audience

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Formulation is a mixture of ingredients prepared in a certain way and used for a specific purpose. A cosmetic formulation is the combination of ingredients that make up a cosmetic product. The formulation is responsible for the product's performance, appearance, and shelf life.

The ingredients in a cosmetic formulation can be divided into two main categories: active ingredients and inactive ingredients. Active ingredients are the ingredients that provide the product with its desired effect, such as moisturizing, exfoliating, or protecting the skin. Inactive ingredients are the ingredients that help to improve the product's performance, appearance, or shelf life, such as thickeners, preservatives, and fragrances.

The goal of cosmetic formulation is to develop safe, effective, and appealing products that meet consumer needs while adhering to regulatory guidelines and quality standards in the cosmetics industry.

Skin ceramides are amides of sphingosine and ω-hydroxy fatty acids, with the hydroxyl group esterified with linoleic acid. They are colourless wax-like substances that are practically insoluble in water. They are usually available in powder form. They can be isolated from the above mentioned natural sources, but are mostly produced today by synthesis. Ceramides are the main intercellular lipids of the stratum corneum and are crucial for the proper organisation of lipid lamellar phases. They are classified in the group of sphingolipids.

Source: Modern Cosmetics - Dr. Damjan Janeš and Dr. Nina Kočevar Glavač

Pomegranate is a shrub or a small tree reaching a height of 5 to 8 m. It is mainly cultivated for its delicious fruit and also as a garden plant. In appearance, the pomegranate fruit is reminiscent of an apple. Its interior, however, resembles a spongy structure of cavities separated by white membranes containing numerous seeds. In terms of the latter, the pomegranate has been traditionally worshipped as a symbol of fertility and wealth. The tree originates from Iran, from where it has spread to the Mediterranean, Africa, Southeast Asia, Australia and America. Botanical characteristics: phyllotaxis oppositeleaved, leaves shiny, elliptic-lanceolate, 3 to 7 cm long, 2 cm wide; flowers with 5 to 8 red petals, calyx red, tubular; fruits yellowish red, 5 to 12 cm in diameter, exocarp leathery, mesocarp fleshy; seeds 200 to 1,400, surrounded by a dark-red juicy aril.

Pomegranate seeds contain approximately 20% oil. The triglyceride composition of pomegranate oil is completely unique in the plant world. It is mainly represented by punicic acid, a very rare omega-5 fatty acid that belongs to the group of conjugated linolenic acids. Another important feature of pomegranate oil is the presence of two estrogen hormones, 17α-estradiol and estrone. Also exceptionally high is its content of vitamin E.

Pomegranate oil is oxidatively very unstable. It is light yellow or golden yellow, with a characteristic sour-oily odour, and is considerably more viscous than a typical vegetable oil. In terms of its unique chemical composition, pomegranate oil has no suitable substitute among other vegetable oils.

Mechanism of action and use
Interest in pomegranate oil as a dermatological and cosmetically active ingredient has only recently evolved. In contrast to most vegetable butters and oils, it has been studied intensively over the last decade. Laboratory research on skin cell and tissue cultures, both animal and human, has shown its anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and photoprotective effects. It has been demonstrated that pomegranate oil improves the regeneration of injured skin, as it stimulates keratinocyte proliferation and the repair of the dermis. It also decreases damaging effects caused by ultraviolet radiation. Pomegranate oil is therefore considered the best choice in the care of demanding mature and stressed skin. It is also recommended in the care of dry and allergy-prone skin, as well as burnt skin and in the care of the skin after sun exposure. Due to its high oxidative instability, pure pomegranate oil should be used in combination with more stable oils or antioxidants.

Source: Modern Cosmetics - Dr. Damjan Janeš and Dr. Nina Kočevar Glavač

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Mango is a tree that grows up to 40 m in height. It originates from the regions of Bangladesh, Myanmar, India and Indonesia. It is one of the most exploited tropical trees, both in its native regions and in Africa, Australia and South America, where the tree is grown commercially. Botanical characteristics: bark greyish brown or black; leaves smooth, initially red, but become dark green during growth, lanceolate; inflorescence paniculate, flowers small, greenish white or pink, in groups of 500 to 6,000, petals 5, stamens 5, sepals 5, pubescent; fruits botanically termed drupes, oblong, 8 to 12 cm long, exocarp smooth, greenish yellow or greenish red, mesocarp fleshy, juicy, yellow, endocarp hard, with 1 large seed.

Mango seeds contain 9 to 13% butter. Its triglyceride composition is characterised by the balanced proportion of predominant stearic and oleic acids. Another important feature is its content of phytosterols, which may be as high as 7%. The melting point is approximately 35°C. Mango butter is stable against oxidation. It is of yellow or light-brown colour and has a typical sweetish-oily odour.

Given its fatty acid composition, mango butter is most similar to shea butter and is considered its best substitute. However, the consistency of mango butter is slightly more solid and it contains less unsaponifiable matter.
Mango seeds contain up to 50% water and must therefore be quickly dried after harvesting to reduce the water content to approximately 10%. The harvesting period for mango fruit in the countries of southwest Asia, which are the leading producers of mango butter, coincides with the monsoon season. Such demanding climatic conditions make the processing of mango fruit very difficult. Wet seeds are suitable for the extensive development of microorganisms, especially Aspergillus niger. Fungus lipases degrade triglyceride molecules into free fatty acids. In unrefined mango butter produced from fresh seeds, the content of free fatty acids was shown to increase from 2 to 7% in 20 days, and to 46% in 120 days.

Mechanism of action and use
Mango butter is used as an emollient ingredient in a variety of cosmetic products, e.g. skin and hair cleansing cosmetics, skin and hair care cosmetics, lip care cosmetics and decorative cosmetics. It is also very popular in products for massage. Due to its high content of phytosterols, it may contribute to antioxidative activity and restore the impaired function of the lipid barrier. In vivo laboratory studies with an emulsion containing 25% mango butter have shown accelerated wound healing. Similar effects have been observed with the same emulsion used in volunteers. Scientific literature describes some very rare cases of contact dermatitis caused by the dermal use of mango butter.

Source: Modern Cosmetics - Dr. Damjan Janeš and Dr. Nina Kočevar Glavač

Almond is a shrub or more typically a tree that grows 4 to 12 m in height. It originates in the regions from India to Asia Minor. It was introduced to the Mediterranean in the times of antiquity and later to North America. Both regions are the leading producers of almond today. Sweet almond bears edible fruit with a sweetish taste, while the fruit of bitter almond is bitter.
Botanical characteristics: bark reddish; leaves dark green, lanceolate, acuminate; flowers with 5 petals, 3 to 5 cm in diameter, pink in bitter almond, white in sweet almond; fruits botanically termed drupes, oblong, up to 6 cm long, exocarp greyish green, pubescent, endocarp hard, with 1 seed.

Almond seeds contain approximately 50% oil, which is among the richest sources of oleic acid in triglycerides. Also considerably high is its content of linoleic acid, while saturated palmitic and stearic acids are present in minor amounts. Almond oil is oxidatively unstable. It has a light-yellow colour and a weak, sweetish-nutty odour. It is cold-pressed from bitter as well as sweet almond.

Source: Modern Cosmetics - Dr. Damjan Janeš and Dr. Nina Kočevar Glavač

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Açai is a 15 to 25 m tall palm of the Amazon rainforest. Açai fruit is one of the most important export products of the Brazilian food industry. The global trade of açai fruit began flourishing around 2000, although it has been used traditionally for centuries in diet, medicine and cosmetics.
Botanical characteristics: leaves pinnate, up to 3 m long; inflorescence dense, racemose, flowers brown or red, pentamerous; fruits botanically termed drupes, round, up to 2 cm in diameter, in bunches of 700 to 900, exocarp thin, dark red or dark blue to almost black, mesocarp fleshy, thin (approximately 1 mm), endocarp hard, 1 cm in diameter, with 1 seed.

Açai pericarp contains 25 to 50% oil. Approximately 50% of fatty acids in triglycerides are represented by oleic acid followed by palmitic and linoleic acids in descending order. The content of palmitic acid is high for a vegetable oil. Characteristic is the presence of palmitoleic acid, which is only rarely found in vegetable oils. Açai oil is also rich in phenols, particularly phenol acids (i.e. ferulic, p-hydroxybenzoic, protocatechuic, syringic and vanillic acids) and procyanidin dimers and trimers, which increase the oil’s oxidative stability. It is therefore considered stable against oxidation. Açai oil has a dark-green colour, a distinctive sweetish odour reminiscent of the fruit pulp and is slightly more viscous than a typical vegetable oil.

In terms of its chemical composition, açai oil is considered a unique vegetable oil, and no suitable substitute among other vegetable oils exists. Given its content of palmitoleic acid, açai oil belongs to a special group of vegetable oils, together with avocado, Chilean hazel, macadamia and sea buckthorn oils.

Mechanism of action and use

Açai oil is usually found in cosmetic products for the care of mature skin, as it is supposed to have antioxidative, regenerative and anti-ageing properties expressed by phenols, phytosterols and linoleic acid. Due to its high content of palmitic acid, it is considered a substitute for vegetable butters, however, it gives a more pleasant, lighter, non-oily feeling on the skin. In vitro studies have proven its antioxidative activity to be higher than the antioxidative activity of olive oil. The amount of açai oil in a cosmetic product must be carefully planned, as it may leave a strong colouration. In addition, some caution is advised in terms of the long-term daily use due to the high
content of oleic acid in açai oil, which may negatively affect the skin’s barrier function.

Source: Modern Cosmetics - Dr. Damjan Janeš and Dr. Nina Kočevar Glavač

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A tagline is a short phrase that captures a company's brand essence, personality, and positioning, and distinguishes the company from its competitors. Deceptively simple, taglines are not arbitrary. They grow out of an intensive strategic and creative process.

Taglines have become shorthand for what a brand stands for and delivers. Originally used in advertising as the centerpiece of a global marketing campaign, taglines historically have had much shorter life spans than logos. The best taglines have a long life, and transcend marketplace and lifestyle changes. They are meaningful and memorable, and require frequent and consistent use.

Source: Designing Brand Identity - Alina Wheeler

Abyssinian kale is a herbaceous annual plant that grows 1 to 1.5 m in height. It is native to the Mediterranean. From there it has spread through Southwest Asia and Western Europe. It grows today in many parts of the world.
Botanical characteristics: stem branched with approximately 30 side stems; inflorescence racemose, flowers numerous, small, white, tetramerous; fruits small, with 1 seed; seeds round, greenish white, 1 to 3 mm in diameter.

Abyssinian kale seeds contain approximately 30% oil. The fatty acid composition of triglycerides is defined by a high content of long-chain C20-24 fatty acids, i.e. gondoic, behenic, erucic and nervonic acids. Abyssinian kale oil is stable against oxidation. The oil has a light-yellow colour and a weak nutty odour.
Given its fatty acid composition, there is no suitable substitute for Abyssinian kale oil among other vegetable oils. It is classified into a special group of vegetable oils defined by long-chain fatty acids, together with broccoli, meadowfoam and rapeseed oils.

Long-chain fatty acids give Abyssinian kale oil its good slip and spreadability, which makes it a suitable cosmetic ingredient for the cleansing and care of the hair, which in turn should become shiny, easy to comb and manageable. Abyssinian kale oil has good potential for use in decorative cosmetics, particularly in lip products, where slip and spreadability properties are also desired. The oil may also be incorporated into skin care products for its emollient function.

Source: Modern Cosmetics - Dr. Damjan Janeš and Dr. Nina Kočevar Glavač

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A cosmetic leak test is a test that is conducted to ensure that the packaging of a cosmetic product is airtight and does not leak. The test is done by pressurizing the package and then looking for a drop in pressure over time.

The purpose of a cosmetic leak test is to ensure that the product is safe to use and that it will not spoil or become contaminated during its shelf life. The test also helps to prevent the product from drying out or evaporating.

There are a few different methods that can be used to conduct a cosmetic leak test. One common method is to use a differential pressure decay leak tester. This type of tester uses a pump to pressurize the package and then measures the rate at which the pressure drops over time. A leak will cause the pressure to drop more quickly.

The cosmetic leak test is an important part of the quality control of cosmetic products. It helps to ensure that the products are safe and effective for consumers to use.

A cosmetic challenge test is a test that is conducted to determine the efficacy of the preservative system in a cosmetic product. The test is done by adding a known number of bacteria and fungi to the product and then measuring the growth of the microorganisms over time.

The purpose of a cosmetic challenge test is to ensure that the product is safe to use and that it will not spoil or become contaminated during its shelf life. The test is also used to verify the effectiveness of the preservative system and to make sure that it is compatible with the other ingredients in the product.

The cosmetic challenge test is conducted according to a standard method, such as ISO 11930.

The most effective and consistent means of establishing the efficacy of a preservation system is to subject the product to a microbial challenge test. There are many variations on this test but, in its most simple form, the methods prescribed by various pharmacopoeia are a good basis, e.g. United States Pharmacopoeia (USP) and Pharmacopoeia Europa (Ph. Eur.). In the Ph. Eur. method, the product is inoculated with cultures of organisms representative of the four main subgroups of likely contaminants:

- Gram-negative bacteria – Pseudomonas aeruginosa
- Gram-positive bacteria – Staphylococcus aureus
- Yeasts – Candida albicans
- Moulds – Aspergillus brasiliensis
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These cultures are inoculated in separate samples, and then checked for surviving colonies at specified time points. There are different criteria for success for bacteria than for fungi; both are measured on the degree of logarithmic reduction in colony numbers. In order to pass the criteria for bacteria, the colony count must be reduced by at least log 2 within 2 days, and by at least log 3 within 7 days, with no increase in numbers thereafter (being tested also after 14 and 28 days). In order to pass the criteria for fungi, the colony count must be reduced by at least log 2 within 7 days, with no increase thereafter, again, up to 28 days.
The criteria described here, from the Ph. Eur., are the ‘A’ criteria. There are also ‘B’ criteria, which are less stringent and are applied only in situations where the possibility of microbial contamination is greatly reduced, usually due to packaging (e.g. single-use packs). The USP criteria include the Gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli and are less stringent than those of the Ph. Eur., requiring only that there is no increase in the initial numbers of A. brasiliensis and C. albicans up to 28 days, and only a 1 log reduction of bacteria by 7 days; then a 3 log reduction by 14 days, with no increase at 28 days.

Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters

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A preservative is any substance used to kill or prevent the growth of microorganisms which, by their growth, will spoil or contaminate a raw material or product.

Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters

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An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible (unmixable or unblendable) owing to liquid-liquid phase separation. Emulsions are part of a more general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. The word "emulsion" comes from the Latin word emulgere, which means "to milk out". This is because milk is an emulsion of fat and water.

Emulsions are often used in cosmetics, food, and pharmaceuticals. In cosmetics, emulsions are used in a variety of products, such as lotions, creams, and sunscreens. They are also used in food, such as mayonnaise and salad dressing. In pharmaceuticals, emulsions are used to deliver drugs to the body.

Emulsions are dispersions of liquid droplets in a liquid or semi-solid matrix. If the droplets consist of oil dispersed in an aqueous liquid, they are called oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions, while water-in-oil (w/o) emulsions are water disperse in an oil matrix. Elegant emulsion-based cosmetic formulations can be prepared by incorporating oils using a balanced surfactant system based on non-ionic surfactants, such as polyglycerol esters, fatty alcohol ethoxylates, monoglycerides, sucrose and sorbitan esters, polymers or combinations of emulsifiers and stabilisers. The surfactant system associates primarily with either the oil or aqueous phase but has sufficiently balanced polarity to reside at the interface between the two phases. Thus the surfactant system stabilises the interface and allows two phases to exist as a stable emulsion. This is achieved by stabilising the aqueous (hydrophilic) and oil (lipophilic) components together as an emulsion formulation using the hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB) system.

Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters

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“Flava” means yellow in Greek and the collective name of flavonoids for this group of compounds was proposed by Geissman in 1952.

This is a very large group of compounds showing extraordinary diversity and variation and as the Greek root for the word suggests, many of these compounds are yellow in color. They consist of a number of structurally related groups of products, which are often identified as polyphenols. Many have a basic skeleton that contains 15 carbon atoms, which are usually subdivided into one part made up from a phenolic moiety and another which has a cinnamic acid molecule as a building block.

The group called the chalcones may be considered as the Friedel-Crafts reaction product of a (substituted) cinnamic acid and a phenol. The flavonoids in red wine (Vitis vinifera) such as quercetin, kaempferol, and anthocyanidins account for the free radical–scavenging activity.

In green tea (Camellia sinensis or Thea viridis), it is the catechins and catechin gallate esters that are shown to be effective antioxidants against free radicals. The dietary effectiveness of these materials has been known for generations and similar antioxidant effectiveness has been shown to occur when these materials are topically applied to protect skin cells.

Flavonoids also are a source of natural color, with yellows from the chalcones and flavonols, and reds, blues, and violets from the anthocyanidins. The flavones are colorless, but are still able to absorb UV strongly and so act as a beacon to pollinating insects. The exploitation of these molecules as a source of natural color in cosmetics and toiletries is just beginning, but their poor light stability is often a stumbling block. Flavonoids may be found as their glycosides. These are molecules that are substituted on one or more of the hydroxyl groups with a sugar such as galactose, glucose, mannose, or rhamnose, etc. The aglycons do not carry a sugar moiety.

Source: Dermatologic, Cosmeceutic and Cosmetic development - Kenneth A. Walters, Michael S. Roberts

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The simplest treatment of dry skin conditions is with fixed vegetable oils. Many of these vegetable, nut, seed, and kernel oils are simple blends of fatty acids with varying
carbon chain lengths. Coconut, sunflower, safflower, rapeseed, corn, or sesame seed oil will give perfectly acceptable skin coverage and are most often used as carrier oils for essential oils. These oils will coat the skin to occlude and protect it by slowing down transepidermal water loss and so increasing hydration within the stratum corneum and top layers of the dermis. They will also “glue down” dry and desquamatous skin cells to make the skin look less rough and scaly. Some oils such as castor seed oil (Ricinus communis) are renowned not only for their very high gloss (and so a frequent component in lipsticks and lip salves), but also for their high degree of occlusiveness which makes them ideal for skin protection, for example, diaper or nappy rash creams, where the most traditional and best-known example would be zinc and castor oil cream.

Other oils such as evening primrose oil (Oenothera biennis), borage (starflower) seed oil (Borago officinalis), and blackcurrant seed oil (Ribes nigrum) are particularly useful because of their high γ-linolenic acid content. Evening primrose used to hold a pharmaceutical license for use on atopic dermatitis, but subsequently lost this status on the publication of further clinical trial data. It is still widely taken orally for mastitis (breast pain).

A new oil, made commercially available in 2006, is inchi oil (Plukentia volubilis), which also has the name Aztec peanut - although it is totally unrelated to the peanut (Arachis hypogaea). This oil is abundant in omega-3, omega-6, and omega-12 fatty acids, and could well show huge promise in skin care. Another plant that is rich in γ-linolenic acid is a particular species of rose hip seed oil (Rosa aff. rubiginosa) that is collected in the foothills of the Chilean Andes and often called Rosa moschata.

This oil is reputed to contain vitamin A according to some references. A large body of evidence (mainly anecdotal clinical) suggests that this oil has exceptional cicatrizing properties and is an excellent oil for restoring skin elasticity especially for postsurgical conditions where tightness has become a problem for the patient. It was also shown to be effective for treating the hyperpigmentation of certain scar tissues.

Source: Dermatologic, Cosmeceutic and Cosmeticdevelopment - Kenneth A. Walters, Michael S. Roberts

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A natural is any material that is harvested, mined, or collected, and which may have subsequently been washed, decolorized, distilled, fractionated, ground, milled, separated, or concentrated, leaving a chemical or chemicals that would be available and detectable in the original source material. It is also the modification of natural material by the action of microorganisms, enzymes, or yeasts to modify or increase the yield of material by this process. Naturally derived materials are defined by the use of a natural raw material as the starting point in a chemical process that produces a new chemical or chemicals that in themselves may not be available in nature or in the starting material. Nature-identical materials are substances that have been synthetically produced, not usually from a natural starting material, in order to produce a material that is identical to that naturally occurring in nature.

Source: Dermatologic, Cosmeceutic and Cosmeticdevelopment - Kenneth A. Walters, Michael S. Roberts

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TEWL stands for transepidermal water loss. It is the amount of water that evaporates from the outermost layer of the skin (the stratum corneum) to the surrounding environment. TEWL is a natural process, but it can be increased by certain factors, such as dry air, hot weather, and harsh soaps.

TEWL is measured in grams per square meter per hour (g/m2/h). Normal TEWL rates range from 2.3 to 44 g/m2/h. However, TEWL can be higher in people with dry skin, eczema, or other skin conditions.

From the classic experiment by Pinson in 1942, comparing insensible perspiration from the skin on contralateral body sites with and without sweat glands inactivated by formaldehyde to our modern-day evaluations of skin-surface water evaporation, TEWL is taken as a true reflection of SC barrier function only when there is no sweat gland activity and the skin surface is dry.

This is achieved by conducting measurements in controlled temperature and humidity environments, typically 21°C, 50% relative humidity (RH) with subjects at rest. Basal or baseline TEWL is the resting rate of evaporative loss of water through normal nonperturbed skin. Although variation is observed from one body site to another, basal TEWL is low in normal healthy intact human skin. Basal TEWL is a primary end point used to dimension the variability in skin barrier function across age, body site, ethnicity, and other factors. Although in vitro evidence has challenged the validity of the assumption that TEWL is predictive of the skin’s permeability to topical penetrants more recent validation studies support the generally agreed conclusion that TEWL is the current best objective measure of the skin’s barrier to evaporative water loss.

The three instruments most commonly used to noninvasively measure TEWL are the Tewameter® evaporimeter (Courage & Khazaka, Cologne, Germany), the Dermalab TEWL module (Cortex Technologies, Hadsund, Denmark), and the ServoMed® evaporimeter (Servomed, Varberg, Sweden).

Source: Dermatologic, Cosmeceutic and Cosmeticdevelopment - Kenneth A. Walters, Michael S. Roberts

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Synonyms of age spots include sun spots, solar lentigines, senile lentigines, and liver spots. Age spots are prevalent in low-grade phototype, thought to affect more than 90% of whites older than 60 years, and is linked strongly to sun exposure and age. They are presented as yellow–light brown to black macules on surfaces of the skin exposed to the sun (face, upper back, forearms, dorsum of the hands). Histologically, age spots are characterized by the presence of elongated epidermal rete ridges with heavy pigmentation in the basal layer. Electron microscopy revealed an increase in the number of active melanocytes and number and size of the melanosomal complexes in keratinocytes. Some have reported the presence of giant melanosomal complexes in melanocytes. Keratinocyte defects can be expected because an “age spot” persists even with differentiation, thus indicating that the progeny of keratinocytes persists in perpetuation of the “age spot.” A keratinocyte memory can be postulated. Basement membrane defects are possible with diffusion of melanin into the dermis or transgression of melanin-bearing keratinocytes into the dermis. Treatment options include hydroquinone (2–4%), tretinoin (0.05–0.1%), tazarotene (0.1%), adapalene (0.1–0.3%), azealic acid, and kojic acid. Laser treatment and intense pulsed light treatment have also shown to be effective.

Source: Dermatologic, Cosmeceutic and Cosmetic development - Kenneth A. Walters, Michael S. Roberts

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Accelerated tests, developed because of the relatively short development cycle for cosmetic products, enable the prediction of stability. A commonly accepted practice is to support the forecasts obtained from accelerated stability testing by carrying out periodic post-launch monitoring of retained samples stored at ambient temperatures. The resultant information can also be useful in further improving the product and in refining the methodology used for accelerated stability testing.

Source: Guidelines on stability testing of cosmetic products - Colipa

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The purpose of stability testing cosmetic products is to ensure that a new or modified product meets the intended physical, chemical and microbiological quality standards as well as functionality and aesthetics when stored under appropriate conditions. Because the development cycle of cosmetic products is relatively short, and also, in order that the testing activity does not become economically disproportionate in view of the multitude of product launches each year, each manufacturer must have at their disposal tests that are adapted to their activity. Each manufacturer should design their stability testing program such that it is reasonable and efficiently addresses the testing required. (Guidelines on stability testing of cosmetic products - Colipa)
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The specific tests performed during stability testing will vary depending on the type of cosmetic product, but they typically include:

- Physical tests: These tests measure the appearance, texture, and color of the product.
- Chemical tests: These tests measure the concentration of ingredients in the product and the presence of any harmful substances.
- Microbiological tests: These tests measure the number of bacteria and other microorganisms in the product.
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Stability testing is typically conducted over a period of several months or even years, and the product is tested under a variety of conditions, such as different temperatures, light levels, and humidity levels. The results of stability testing are used to determine the shelf life of the product, which is the length of time the product can be stored and still meet its intended quality standards.

Stability testing is an important part of the development and marketing of cosmetic products. It helps to ensure that consumers are using safe and effective products that will not deteriorate over time.

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According to the European Commission Dir. 93/35/EEC, Art. 1, a cosmetic product is defined as ‘any substance or preparation intended to be placed in contact with the various parts of the human body (epidermis, hair system, nails, lips and external genital organs) or with the teeth and the mucous membranes of the oral cavity with a view exclusively or mainly to cleaning them, perfuming them, changing their appearance and/or correcting body odour and/or protecting them or keeping them in good condition’ [EU, 1993a].

This definition gives an indication on the target site of application of a cosmetic product and on its allowed functions [Colipa, 2004]. Thus, products such as skin creams, lotions, perfumes, lipsticks, fingernail polishes, eye and facial make-up preparations, soap products, shampoos, permanent waves, hair colours, toothpastes, deodorants, fall under the category of cosmetic products in the EU.

More questionable product types such as suntanning preparations, antiperspirants and antidandruff shampoos are also considered cosmetics within Europe, whereas this may differ in other parts of the world [Pauwels and Rogiers, 2004].

Source: Safety Assessment of Cosmetics in Europe - Vera Rogiers and Marleen Pauwels

According to the REGULATION (EC) No 1223/2009 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL a cosmetic products may include creams, emulsions, lotions,
gels and oils for the skin, face masks, tinted bases (liquids, pastes, powders), make-up powders, after-bath powders, hygienic powders, toilet soaps, deodorant soaps, perfumes, toilet waters and eau de Cologne, bath and shower preparations (salts, foams, oils, gels), depilatories, deodorants and anti-perspirants, hair colorants, products for waving, straightening and fixing hair, hair-setting products, haircleansing products (lotions, powders, shampoos), hairconditioning products (lotions, creams, oils), hairdressing products (lotions, lacquers, brilliantines), shaving products (creams, foams, lotions), make-up and products removing make-up, products intended for application to the lips, products for care of the teeth and the mouth, products for nail care and make-up, products for external intimate hygiene, sunbathing products, products for tanning without sun, skin-whitening products and anti-wrinkle products.

Effective brand strategy provides a central, unifying idea around which all behavior, actions and communications are aligned. It works across products and services, and is effective over time. The best brand strategies are so differentiated and powerful that they deflect the competition. They are easy to talk abou, whether you are CEO or an employee.

Brand strategy builds on a vision, is aligned with business strategy, emerges from a company's values and culture, and reflects an indeőth understanding of the customer's needs and perceptions. Brand strategy defines positioning, differentiation, the competitive advantage, and unique value proposition.

Brand strategy needs to resonate with all the stakeholders: external customers, the media, and internal customers. Brand strategy is a road map that guides marketing, makes it easier for the sales force to sell more, and provides clarity, content, and inspiration to employees.

Source: Designing Brand Identity - Alina Wheeler

Branding is a disciplined process used to build awareness and extend customer loyalty. It requires a mandate from the top and readiness to invest in the future. Branding is about seizing every opportunity to express why people should choose one brand over another. A desire to lead, outpace the competition, and give employees the best tools to reach customers are the reasons why companies leverage branding.

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Source: Designing Brand Identity - Alina Wheeler

Brand identity is tangible and appeals to the senses. You can see it, touch it, hear it, watch it move. Brand identity fuels recognition, amplifies differentiation, and makes big ideas and meaning accessible. Brand identity takes disparate elements and unifies them into whole systems.

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Source: Designing Brand Identity - Alina Wheeler

As competition creates infinite choices, companies look for ways to connect emotionally with customers, become irreplaceable, and create lifelong relationships. A strong brand stands out in a densely crowded marketplace. People fall in love with brands, trust them, and believe in their superiority. How a brand is perceived affects its success, regardless of whether it's a start-up, a nonprofit, or a product.

Source: Designing Brand Identity - Alina Wheeler

Cosmetic formulation refers to the process of creating a specific combination of ingredients to develop a cosmetic product, such as skincare, makeup, haircare, or personal care items. This process involves selecting and blending various raw materials, including chemicals, natural extracts, oils, and additives, to create a final product with the desired appearance, texture, scent, and functional benefits.

A preservative that is found naturally in nature, usually in balsamic resins (such as Tolu Balsam). The form used in this product is ‘natural identical’, simply because the price of extraction from a natural resin is prohibitively expensive. CIR Expert Panel: Concentration or other limitation on use for safe with qualifications conclusion: safe for use in all cosmetic formulations up to 5%, safe for use in hair dyes up to 10%