Knowledge Base
A schedule is a model for executing the project’s activities, including durations, dependencies, and other planning information. Schedule planning can use predictive or adaptive approaches.
Predictive approaches follow a stepwise process as follows:
▶ Step 1. Decompose the project scope into specific activities.
▶ Step 2. Sequence related activities.
▶ Step 3. Estimate the effort, duration, people, and physical resources required to complete the activities.
▶ Step 4. Allocate people and resources to the activities based on availability.
▶ Step 5. Adjust the sequence, estimates, and resources until an agreed-upon schedule is achieved.
If the schedule model does not meet the initial desired end date, schedule compression methods are applied.
The Standard For Project Management And A Guide To The Project Management Body Of Knowledge (Pmbok® Guide) Seventh Edition
Scope is the sum of the products, services, and results to be provided as a project. As scope is defined, it creates the need for more requirements identification. Therefore, like requirements, scope can be well defined up front, it can evolve over time, or it can be discovered.
The Standard For Project Management And A Guide To The Project Management Body Of Knowledge (Pmbok® Guide) Seventh Edition
Stakeholders can be individuals, groups, or organizations that may affect, be affected by, or perceive themselves to be affected by a decision, activity, or outcome of a portfolio, program, or project. Stakeholders also directly or indirectly influence a project, its performance, or outcome in either a positive or negative way.
- Stakeholders influence projects, performance, and outcomes.
- Project teams serve other stakeholders by engaging with them.
- Stakeholder engagement proactively advances value delivery.
Stakeholders can affect many aspects of a project, including but not limited to:
▶ Scope/requirements, by revealing the need to add, adjust, or remove elements of the scope and/or project requirements;
▶ Schedule, by offering ideas to accelerate delivery or by slowing down or stop delivery of key project activities;
▶ Cost, by helping to reduce or eliminate planned expenditures or by adding steps, requirements, or restrictions that increase cost or require additional resources;
▶ Project team, by restricting or enabling access to people with the skills, knowledge, and experience needed to deliver the intended outcomes, and promote a learning culture;
▶ Plans, by providing information for plans or by advocating for changes to agreed activities and work;
▶ Outcomes, by enabling or blocking work required for the desired outcomes;
▶ Culture, by establishing or influencing—or even defining—the level and character of engagement of the project team and broader organization;
▶ Benefits realization, by generating and identifying long-term goals so that the project delivers the intended identified value;
▶ Risk, by defining the risk thresholds of the project, as well as participating in subsequent risk management activities;
▶ Quality, by identifying and requiring quality requirements; and
▶ Success, by defining success factors and participating in the evaluation of success.
Stakeholders may come and go throughout the life cycle of the project. Additionally, the degree of a stakeholder’s interest, influence, or impact may change over time. Stakeholders, especially those with a high degree of influence and who have an unfavorable or neutral view about a project, need to be effectively engaged so that their interests, concerns, and rights are understood. The project team can then address these concerns through effective engagement and support leading to the probability of a successful project outcome.
The Standard For Project Management And A Guide To The Project Management Body Of Knowledge (Pmbok® Guide) Seventh Edition
This bar chart provides schedule information where activities are listed on the vertical axis, dates are shown on the horizontal axis, and activity durations are shown as horizontal bars placed according to start and finish dates.
The Standard For Project Management And A Guide To The Project Management Body Of Knowledge (Pmbok® Guide) Seventh Edition
The person assigned by the performing organization to lead the project team that is responsible for achieving the project objectives. Project managers perform a variety of functions, such as facilitating the project team work to achieve the outcomes and managing the processes to deliver intended outcomes.
People drive project delivery. They do so by fulfilling functions necessary for the project to run effectively and efficiently. Functions related to the project can be fulfilled by one person, by a group of people, or combined into defined roles. Coordinating a collective work effort is extremely important to the success of any project. There are different types of coordination suitable for different contexts. Some projects benefit from decentralized coordination in which project team members self-organize and self-manage. Other projects benefit from centralized coordination with the leadership and guidance of a designated project manager or similar role. Some projects with centralized coordination can also benefit from including self-organized project teams for portions of the work. Regardless of how coordination takes place, supportive leadership models and meaningful, continuous engagements between project teams and other stakeholders underpin successful outcomes.
Regardless of how projects are coordinated, the collective effort of the project team delivers the outcomes, benefits, and value. The project team may be supported by additional functions depending on the deliverables, industry, organization, and other variables.
The Standard For Project Management And A Guide To The Project Management Body Of Knowledge (Pmbok® Guide) Seventh Edition
Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements. Project management refers to guiding the project work to deliver the intended outcomes. Project teams can achieve the outcomes using a broad range of approaches (e.g., predictive, hybrid, and adaptive).
The Standard For Project Management And A Guide To The Project Management Body Of Knowledge (Pmbok® Guide) Seventh Edition
A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result. The temporary nature of projects indicates a beginning and an end to the project work or a phase of the project work. Projects can stand alone or be part of a program or portfolio.
A project is a system of elements that interact with each other. Complexity is a characteristic of a project or its environment that is difficult to manage due to human behavior, system behavior, and ambiguity. The nature and number of the interactions determine the degree of complexity in a project.
Complexity emerges from project elements, interactions between project elements, and interactions with other systems and the project environment. Though complexity cannot be controlled, project teams can modify their activities to address impacts that occur as a result of complexity.
Project teams often cannot foresee complexity emerging because it is the result of many interactions such as risks, dependencies, events, or relationships. Alternatively, a few causes may converge to produce a single complex effect, which makes isolating a specific cause of complexity difficult. Project complexity occurs as the result of individual elements within the project and project system as a whole. For example, complexity within a project may be amplified with a greater number or diversity of stakeholders, such as regulatory agencies, international financial institutions, multiple vendors, numerous specialty subcontractors, or local communities. These stakeholders can have a significant impact on the complexity of a project, both individually and collectively.
The Standard For Project Management And A Guide To The Project Management Body Of Knowledge (Pmbok® Guide) Seventh Edition
PP is a translucent plastic resin used in bottles for shampoo, conditioner, jars for creams and products containing a high concentration of vegetable or mineral oil such as bath and sun tanning oils. It has lower porosity than PE, thus reducing the potential for migration of product components through the packaging.
PP is used to produce the majority of lids for containers, which can be flip top, top disc or a blind cover. The discs that are placed under the cover of a cream so that the product has no direct contact with the lid are also generally composed of PP.
Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters
PVC offers transparency, but is brittle and the packaging is likely to crack or break if dropped. PVC has little memory and can be coloured with pigments. It is most commonly used in bottles of shampoo, conditioner, lotions, tubes of mascara and lip gloss.
Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters
HDPE is a non-transparent plastic resin that is also widely used in cosmetic packaging of bottles of shampoo, conditioner, lotion and sunscreen. It can be white, coloured or pearlescent by adding pigments and pearl.
Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters
PET is one of the most widely used resins because of its transparency, flexibility and memory (i.e. the ability to return to its original shape following deformation), and good compatibility with most cosmetic ingredients.
The good durability of PET is ideal for transparent bottles of shampoos and conditioners that may often slip from the hands and fall to the ground. The bottle will dent, without cracking, unlike other transparent resins. With the addition of pigments, PET bottles or pots become coloured, transparent or translucent. They can also be completely white by the addition of titanium dioxide or pearlescent by adding mica-based pearl luster pigments such as Iriodin®. The addition of sunscreen to the resin confers protection from light to the inner product without the loss of packaging transparency.
Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters
Phenoxyethanol is one of the most widely used preservatives. It is a broad-spectrum preservative, but it is slightly weaker against Gram-positive bacteria than the other species types.
Phenoxyethanol is slightly water-soluble (approximately 2.4%) and is preferably added to the product at temperatures below 40°C to reduce the possibility of evaporative loss, although this is only likely to be an issue should the manufactured batch be held at a high temperature (>80°C) for a prolonged period.
It retains its activity over a broad pH range, from pH 3 to 9. Typical use concentrations are 0.4–1.0%. Phenoxyethanol is more commonly used in combination with other preservatives and is rarely used alone. Phenoxyethanol is permitted in most territories, with restrictions.
Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters
Diazolidinyl urea is primarily an antibacterial preservative, with activity against moulds but fairly weak anti-yeast activity. It has been widely used in many markets since its introduction in the 1980s. It is classified as a formaldehyde donor.
Diazolidinyl urea is highly water-soluble and should be added to the product at temperatures below 40°C to avoid decomposition. It retains its activity over a broad pH range, from pH 3 to 9. Typical use concentrations are 0.1–0.3%. Diazolidinyl urea is permitted in many territories, with restrictions.
Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters
Imidazolidinyl urea is primarily an antibacterial preservative, with very little antifungal activity. It has been widely used in many markets since its introduction in the 1980s.
Imidazolidinyl urea is highly water-soluble and should be added to the product at temperatures below 40°C to avoid decomposition. It retains its activity over a broad pH range, from pH 3 to 9. Typical use concentrations are 0.2–0.5%. The potential for imidazolidinyl urea to release very low levels of formaldehyde is perceived by some to be a disadvantage. Imidazolidinyl urea is permitted globally, with restrictions.
Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters
Esters are the product of the reaction of any acid (usually organic) and alcohol. Common fatty acids are caprylic, capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and behenic acids, and dicarboxilic acids such as adipic acid. Common alcohols are isopropyl, n-butyl, ethylhexyl, myristyl or oleyl alcohol, as well as polyvalent alcohols such as ethylene glycol, polyglycerol, propylene glycol and glycerol. A wide range of combinations can be used to produce the large range of synthetic esters available to the cosmetic industry.
Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters
The term ‘mineral oil’ refers to very highly refined liquid hydrocarbons derived from petroleum distillates, which are used in medicine, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food packaging, food contact applications and food itself. Other terms often used interchangeably with mineral oil, include ‘liquid petrolatum’, ‘liquid paraffin’, ‘paraffin oil’, ‘medicinal oil’, ‘white oil’, ‘white mineral oil’, ‘food grade oil’, ‘food grade white oil’ and ‘technical white oil’. Mineral oils (medium and low viscosity) are manufactured from crude mineral oils in various refining steps, such as distillation, extraction and crystallization, and are subsequently purified by acid treatment (oleum method) and/or hydrotreatment (catalytic hydrogenation). Mineral oils (medium and low viscosity) are mixtures of highly refined paraffinic and naphthenic liquid hydrocarbons with boiling points greater than 200°C. They are lightweight, inexpensive, odourless and tasteless. Mineral oils are a common ingredient in baby lotions, cold creams, ointments and cosmetics. Examples are their use to prevent brittleness and breaking of eyelashes, in cold cream, and to remove make-up and temporary tattoos. A common concern regarding mineral oil is the presence in many lists of comedogenic (i.e. clogs skin pores) substances that were developed many years ago and are frequently quoted in the dermatological literature. However, more recently, highly refined and purified oils commonly used in cosmetics and skin care products are non-comedogenic.
Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters
Ozokerite wax is generally a white, crystalline, odorless and tasteless solid. It is most often made from blends of paraffin and microcrystalline waxes, and when combined offers broader functionality than the constituent ingredients. It is used extensively in personal care and cosmetic formulations. It will increase viscosity, assist in emulsion stability and enhance gel strength in liquid and semi-solid systems. It is a hard wax with a relatively high melting point. These characteristics encourage its use in lipstick and lip care products to promote structure and stick strength.
Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters
Microcrystalline wax is a solid obtained by extracting the oil from petrolatum. It is a complex mixture composed mainly of C31–C70 isoparaffins. It has a microcrystalline structure, high adhesive power, good extensibility, is not susceptible to low temperatures and has a high melting point (60–85°C). When mixed with other waxes, it suppresses crystal formation making it useful in lipsticks and creams.
Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters
The main components are long-chain wax esters with chain lengths of around C60. Although it has
similar chemistry to sunflower wax, its applications are quite different. Refined rice bran wax has a very
hydrophobic character. It forms soft oil gels and is therefore highly preferred for emulsions like mascaras
and skin care products.
Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters
The wax obtained from sunflower oil forms hard and very homogeneous thermally stable oil gels and is therefore excellent for light-coloured, practically odorless and tasteless lip balms, lipsticks and other oil gels. Chemically it has a long chain (about C60) wax ester mainly from monovalent alcohols and acids. Sunflower wax has a melting point of about 80°C and a narrow melting curve with no molten contents below 55°C. Consequently the oil gels are very heat resistant.
Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters
Candelilla wax is a secretion of wild Euphorbia cerifera, which is native to the northern Mexican desert. The wax is obtained from the above ground parts of the plant. The plant is dried, boiled in water and the wax is then skimmed off by decanting. Crude candelilla wax is dark brown and then refined to a pale yellow wax. Candelilla wax is remarkably hard but exhibits low crystallinity and a degree of tackiness at higher temperatures. Its melting point of about 72°C lies between that of beeswax and carnauba wax. The resin and sitosterol it contains combine with esters to give candelilla wax its excellent capacity for binding ester oils. It provides high surface gloss when applied in lipsticks and exhibits satisfactory contraction properties – important for demolding lipsticks.
Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters
Carnauba wax is a secretion of the Brazilian palm Copernicia cerifera, which produces the wax in the cuticula of the fronds. The leaves are harvested from trees growing in the wild by cutting the leaves, drying them in the sun and threshing. Carnauba wax has an extremely narrow melting curve with a melting point of approximately 84°C. The wax, which exhibits high crystallinity and a high degree of contraction, is very hard and brittle. Carnauba wax also has highly favorable emulsification properties and an excellent capacity for binding ester oils and mineral oil. It raises the melting point of oil gels; therefore, carnauba wax is a preferred additive in lipsticks and lip balms, and is highly suitable for use in mascaras. It provides glossy and lustrous surfaces.
Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters
Beeswax is a secretion of the abdominal glands of the honeybee. When freshly secreted, beeswax is white and colourless, but will acquire a colour primarily by the bee picking up and storing pollen and honey. For cosmetic purposes, yellow-grade beeswax is defined as cera flava and white-grade beeswax as cera alba. Beeswax has a relatively low melting point (61–65°C), is moderately hard, and somewhat sticky, plastic and kneadable at body temperature. It is one of the best oil-binding waxes known, therefore considerable amounts of beeswax are used in lipstick and lip balm preparations to produce creamy textures, favorable adhesion to the skin, and films that are well-received among consumers. The oil-gelling properties of beeswax are helpful for stabilizing water-in-oil emulsions for skin and hair applications and for texturizing effects. Beeswax is also used as a means of enhancing texture and adding volume in mascara and make-up.
Source: Cosmetic Formulation Principles and Practice - Heather A.E. Benson, Michael S. Roberts, Vânia Rodrigues Leite-Silva, Kenneth A. Walters
